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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Digital Diagnostics</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Digital Diagnostics</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Digital Diagnostics</trans-title></trans-title-group><trans-title-group xml:lang="zh"><trans-title>Digital Diagnostics</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2712-8490</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2712-8962</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Eco-Vector</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">659812</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17816/DD659812</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">KHKZTQ</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>Original Study Articles</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>Оригинальные исследования</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="zh"><subject>原创性科研成果</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Classification of adrenocortical carcinoma, pheochromocytoma, and adrenal adenomas using contrast-enhanced computed tomography with machine learning and texture features: a cross-sectional study</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Классификация адренокортикального рака, феохромоцитом и аденом надпочечников по данным компьютерной томографии с контрастным усилением с применением машинного обучения и текстурных признаков: одномоментное исследование</trans-title></trans-title-group><trans-title-group xml:lang="zh"><trans-title>基于对比增强计算机断层扫描并结合机器学习与纹理特征的肾上腺皮质癌、嗜铬细胞瘤及肾上腺腺瘤分类：横断面研究</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0003-8035-676X</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">2902-9767</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Manaev</surname><given-names>Almaz V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Манаев</surname><given-names>Алмаз Вадимович</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Manaev</surname><given-names>Almaz V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><email>a.manaew2016@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7965-9454</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">5808-8065</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Tarbaeva</surname><given-names>Natalia V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Тарбаева</surname><given-names>Наталья Викторовна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Tarbaeva</surname><given-names>Natalia V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Cand. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. мед. наук</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Cand. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><email>ntarbaeva@inbox.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9065-7791</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">5675-0651</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Buryakina</surname><given-names>Svetlana A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Бурякина</surname><given-names>Светлана Алексеевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Buryakina</surname><given-names>Svetlana A.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Cand. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. мед. наук</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Cand. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><email>sburyakina@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8958-8223</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">1642-5694</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Kovalevich</surname><given-names>Liliya D.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Ковалевич</surname><given-names>Лилия Дмитриевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Kovalevich</surname><given-names>Liliya D.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><email>liliyakovalevich@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6758-5918</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">4516-8297</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Khairieva</surname><given-names>Angelina V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Хайриева</surname><given-names>Ангелина Владимировна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Khairieva</surname><given-names>Angelina V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><email>komarito@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6891-0009</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">5151-3675</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Urusova</surname><given-names>Liliya S.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Урусова</surname><given-names>Лилия Сергеевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Urusova</surname><given-names>Liliya S.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>д-р мед. наук</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><email>liselivanova89@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8136-0117</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">3477-8994</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Pachuashvili</surname><given-names>Nano V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Пачуашвили</surname><given-names>Нано Владимеровна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Pachuashvili</surname><given-names>Nano V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Cand. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. мед. наук</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Cand. Sci. (Medicine)</p></bio><email>npachuashvili@bk.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5634-7877</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">8615-0038</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Mel'nichenko</surname><given-names>Galina A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Мельниченко</surname><given-names>Галина Афанасьевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Mel'nichenko</surname><given-names>Galina A.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>д-р мед. наук, профессор</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><email>Melnichenko.Galina@endocrincentr.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9717-9742</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">5624-3875</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Mokrysheva</surname><given-names>Natalia G.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Мокрышева</surname><given-names>Наталья Георгиевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Mokrysheva</surname><given-names>Natalia G.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>д-р мед. наук, профессор</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><email>mokrisheva.natalia@endocrincentr.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5649-2193</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">8449-6590</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Sinitsyn</surname><given-names>Valentin E.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Синицын</surname><given-names>Валентин Евгеньевич</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Sinitsyn</surname><given-names>Valentin E.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>д-р мед. наук, профессор</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><email>vsini@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Endocrinology Research Centre</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр эндокринологии имени академика И.И. Дедова</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh">Endocrinology Research Centre</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">National Research Nuclear University “MEPhI”</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ»</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh">National Research Nuclear University “MEPhI”</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff3"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Lomonosov Moscow State University</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh">Lomonosov Moscow State University</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff4"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Research and Practical Clinical Center for Diagnostics and Telemedicine Technologies</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Научно-практический клинический центр диагностики и телемедицинских технологий</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh">Research and Practical Clinical Center for Diagnostics and Telemedicine Technologies</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="preprint" iso-8601-date="2025-11-25" publication-format="electronic"><day>25</day><month>11</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2025-12-29" publication-format="electronic"><day>29</day><month>12</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>6</volume><issue>4</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en"/><issue-title xml:lang="ru"/><issue-title xml:lang="zh"/><fpage>541</fpage><lpage>557</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2025-02-21"><day>21</day><month>02</month><year>2025</year></date><date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2025-10-27"><day>27</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2025, Eco-Vector</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2025, Эко-вектор</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="zh">Copyright ©; 2025, Eco-Vector</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Eco-Vector</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Эко-вектор</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="zh">Eco-Vector</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://jdigitaldiagnostics.com/DD/article/view/659812">https://jdigitaldiagnostics.com/DD/article/view/659812</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p><bold>BACKGROUND: </bold>Differential diagnosis of adrenocortical carcinoma, pheochromocytoma, and adrenal adenomas based on contrast-enhanced computed tomography remains challenging because of substantial overlap in their radiologic characteristics. Existing classification approaches based on conventional morphological criteria demonstrate limited accuracy, which may result in misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatment strategies.</p> <p><bold>AIM: </bold>This study aimed to develop a machine learning model for multiclass classification of adrenal lesions (adenomas, adrenocortical carcinoma, and pheochromocytoma) using contrast-enhanced computed tomography data with texture features.</p> <p><bold>METHODS: </bold>This was a single-center, cross-sectional study with retrospective computed tomography data acquisition and prospective re-analysis of imaging results. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography images were processed using PyRadiomics to extract texture features for each computed tomography phase. Data standardization was performed to reduce the impact of variability in scanning parameters. LightGBM, XGBoost, and CatBoost gradient boosting models were trained using stratified five-fold cross-validation. Diagnostic performance was assessed using recall, precision, F1-score, macro-averaged F1-score, specificity, balanced accuracy, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) for each diagnostic category.</p> <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold>The study included data from 425 patients with histologically verified adrenal tumors: 42 cases of adrenocortical carcinoma, 204 pheochromocytomas, and 179 adrenal adenomas. The developed machine learning models demonstrated high classification performance by cross-validation for adrenal adenomas (F1-score up to 0.916 for the XGBoost model) and pheochromocytomas (F1-score up to 0.855 for the XGBoost model), but substantially lower performance for adrenocortical carcinoma (F1-score up to 0.521 for the CatBoost model). The highest AUC values reached 0.971 for adenomas (LightGBM), 0.924 for pheochromocytomas (LightGBM), and 0.879 for adrenocortical carcinoma (CatBoost). Balanced accuracy reached up to 0.773, and the macro-averaged F1-score reached 0.747 (CatBoost model). Analysis of the most informative features showed that parameters reflecting texture homogeneity and intensity across different contrast-enhancement phases were most relevant for classification.</p> <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold>Radiomics and machine learning methods provide high diagnostic accuracy for multiclass classification of adrenal lesions on contrast-enhanced computed tomography for adrenal adenomas and pheochromocytomas. However, diagnostic performance for adrenocortical carcinoma remains limited, which may be related to tumor heterogeneity and the relatively small number of cases.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p><bold>Обоснование. </bold>Дифференциальная диагностика адренокортикального рака, феохромоцитом и аденом надпочечников по данным компьютерной томографии с контрастным усилением остаётся сложной задачей из-за значительного сходства их рентгенологических характеристик. Существующие методы классификации, основанные на стандартных морфологических критериях, демонстрируют ограниченную точность, что может приводить к ошибочным диагнозам и неадекватному выбору тактики лечения.</p> <p><bold>Цель исследования. </bold>Разработать модель машинного обучения для многоклассовой классификации образований надпочечников (аденомы, адренокортикального рака, феохромоцитомы) по данным компьютерной томографии с контрастным усилением с применением текстурных признаков.</p> <p><bold>Методы. </bold>Проведено одномоментное одноцентровое исследование, ретроспективное в части сбора данных компьютерной томографии, проспективное — в части повторного анализа её результатов. Изображения компьютерной томографии с контрастным усилением обрабатывали в PyRadiomics для вычисления текстурных признаков для каждой фазы компьютерной томографии. С целью снижения влияния различий в параметрах сканирования проводили стандартизацию данных. Модели градиентного бустинга LightGBM, XGBoost и CatBoost обучали с применением стратифицированной 5-fold кросс-валидации. Качество диагностической модели оценивали по показателям Recall, Precision, F1-score, макроусреднённой F1-score, специфичности, Balanced Accuracy и площади под кривой (AUC) для каждого класса (диагноза).</p> <p><bold>Результаты. </bold>В исследование включены данные 425 пациентов с гистологически верифицированными опухолями надпочечников: 42 случая адренокортикального рака, 204 — феохромоцитом и 179 — аденом. Разработанные модели машинного обучения продемонстрировали высокую точность классификации аденом по результатам кросс-валидации (F1-score до 0,916 для модели XGBoost) и феохромоцитом (F1-score до 0,855 для модели XGBoost), но существенно более низкие показатели для адренокортикального рака (F1-score до 0,521 для модели CatBoost). Наилучшие значения AUC достигали 0,971 для аденом (LightGBM), 0,924 для феохромоцитом (LightGBM) и 0,879 для адренокортикального рака (CatBoost). Значение Balanced Accuracy составило до 0,773, макроусреднённая F1-score достигала 0,747 (для модели CatBoost). Анализ наиболее информативных признаков показал, что для классификации значимы параметры, характеризующие однородность и интенсивность элементов текстуры в различных фазах контрастирования.</p> <p><bold>Заключение. </bold>Радиомика и методы машинного обучения обеспечивают высокую точность мультиклассовой классификации образований надпочечников по данным компьютерной томографии с контрастным усилением для аденом и феохромоцитом. Однако точность диагностики адренокортикального рака остаётся низкой, что могло быть связано с гетерогенностью опухоли и недостаточным количеством наблюдений.</p></trans-abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="zh"><p><bold>论证：</bold>基于对比增强计算机断层扫描对肾上腺皮质癌、嗜铬细胞瘤及肾上腺腺瘤进行鉴别诊断仍然是一项复杂的任务，这主要与上述病变在影像学特征上的显著重叠有关。基于标准形态学特征的现有分类方法诊断准确性有限，可能导致诊断错误及不恰当的治疗策略选择。</p> <p><bold>目的：</bold>开发一种基于对比增强计算机断层扫描影像并结合纹理特征的机器学习模型，用于肾上腺肿瘤（腺瘤、肾上腺皮质癌及嗜铬细胞瘤）的多分类。</p> <p><bold>方法：</bold>本研究为单中心横断面研究，其中计算机断层扫描数据的收集为回顾性，影像结果的再分析为前瞻性。采用PyRadiomics软件对对比增强计算机断层扫描各期图像进行处理，计算纹理特征。为减少扫描参数差异的影响，对数据进行了标准化处理。使用LightGBM、XGBoost和CatBoost梯度提升模型，并采用分层五折交叉验证进行训练。模型诊断性能通过recall、precision、F1-score、宏平均F1-score、特异度、Balanced Accuracy以及各诊断类别的曲线下面积（AUC）进行评估。</p> <p><bold>结果：</bold>共纳入425例经组织学验证的肾上腺肿瘤患者，其中肾上腺皮质癌42例、嗜铬细胞瘤204例、腺瘤179例。所构建的机器学习模型在交叉验证中对腺瘤（XGBoost，F1-score最高达0.916）和嗜铬细胞瘤（XGBoost，F1-score最高达0.855）的分类表现出较高准确性，而对肾上腺皮质癌的分类性能明显较低（CatBoost，F1-score最高为0.521）。AUC的最佳值分别为：腺瘤0.971（LightGBM）、嗜铬细胞瘤0.924（LightGBM）和肾上腺皮质癌0.879（CatBoost）。平衡准确率最高达0.773，宏平均F1-score 达到0.747（CatBoost）。对最具信息量特征的分析表明，用于分类的重要参数包括表征不同对比增强期中纹理元素均一性及强度的指标。</p> <p><bold>结论：</bold>放射组学结合机器学习方法在基于对比增强计算机断层扫描对肾上腺腺瘤和嗜铬细胞瘤进行多分类方面表现出较高的诊断准确性。然而，肾上腺皮质癌的分类准确性仍然较低，这可能与肿瘤的高度异质性及病例数量有限有关。</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>computed tomography</kwd><kwd>pheochromocytoma</kwd><kwd>adrenocortical carcinoma</kwd><kwd>adenoma</kwd><kwd>radiomics</kwd><kwd>texture analysis</kwd><kwd>classification</kwd><kwd>machine learning</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>компьютерная томография</kwd><kwd>феохромоцитома</kwd><kwd>адренокортикальный рак</kwd><kwd>аденома</kwd><kwd>радиомика</kwd><kwd>текстурный анализ</kwd><kwd>классификация</kwd><kwd>машинное обучение</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="zh"><kwd>计算机断层扫描</kwd><kwd>嗜铬细胞瘤</kwd><kwd>肾上腺皮质癌</kwd><kwd>腺瘤</kwd><kwd>放射组学</kwd><kwd>纹理分析</kwd><kwd>分类</kwd><kwd>机器学习</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>Albano D, Agnello F, Midiri F, et al. 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